Comparing the 1972 Munich Summer Olympics and the 2012 London Summer Olympics
Leslie Greer
MGT 390 Theory and Organization of the Olympic Games
7/24/12
The 2012 London Olympics are quickly approaching. Organizers of the games have spent almost 10 years working on getting the games to London, and getting London prepared for the games. This is the 30th Summer Olympics put on in modern times, which means London games organizers have 30 other games to learn from the failures and successes. One of the games London organizers can learn a great deal from is the 1972 Munich Olympics. There are several similarities and a few differences that make these games comparable. Both had special global security considerations that distracted from the games and both games are going to be the groundbreaking with new media technology, but the public support and financial budgeting contrasts quite starkly between the Munich games and London games. Every host city presents its own unique advantages and complications, but there are still several themes that are consistent for each summer Olympic games.
Munich, Germany was selected to be the host city for the 1972 summer Olympics over Detroit, Madrid and Montreal (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). This was the second time Germany hosted the summer Olympics. The 1936 Berlin Olympics took place when the Nazi’s were still in power, and further damaged Germany’s reputation. The 1972 Munich Olympics was designed to “heal old wounds” and present a new and improved Germany to the rest of the world (Baur, 1976). This plan failed when a group of Palestinian terrorist took eleven Israeli athletes and coaches hostage. All eleven hostages were killed, along with a police officer and five terrorists (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). The Olympic games were suspended for 24 hours, but resumed after a memorial service was held.
The 1972 Munich Olympics will forever affect security at Olympic games. Intelligence and special force teams are now standard, and well-armed security personnel are the norm. The Munich Olympics were not just an international sports competition; it also set the stage for international relations on security matters. The 2012 London Olympics could very well be a target for terrorist organizations. Although Olympism is about peace and collaboration through sports, it also creates a vulnerable situation for nations and special security considerations must be made.
On paper, Munich was an excellent choice for a host city. It has a fairly mild climate in the summer time, and the people were willing to pour money into improving infrastructure. The structures built for the competition were considered to be revolutionary in design (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). There was a lot of optimism and excitement going in to the games in 1972. Germany has had a rich history of political disputes so the 1972 Olympic motto was “happy games” to present a diplomatic and friendly city to the world (Young ,2012). The security was purposefully lax to emulate a comfortable and relaxed atmosphere (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). Guards wore light blue uniforms and only carried walki-talkies for protection (Reeve, 2000). After an investigation of the terrorist attack, it was revealed that the security team was supposed to practice a simulation that was very similar to the actual terrorist attack, but declined to do so (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). In the attempt to create a safe and relaxed atmosphere, the Munich police were dangerously unprepared for an attack to occur.
Also unfortunate was the fact that Germany’s spoiled political history probably discouraged other countries from assisting with the rescue efforts. Israel was contacted immediately and was notified of the demands of the terrorists, but the Head of State made it clear that Israel would not negotiate with terrorists, and had no intention of complying with the demands and releasing the Palestinian prisoners. Egypt was also consulted because the terrorists demanded the plane take them to Cairo, but the Prime Minister also refused to be involved. Furthermore, because of the post war constitution, the German army could not be involved in the rescue because they are forbidden to operate in Germany during times of peace. The Munich police were unprepared to execute the ambush plan, and the appointed snipers even admitted they were undertrained (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012).
Germany faced a lot of criticism following the event, because there were so many mistakes made along the way. If Germany had a more trusting political friendship with other countries, they may have had better resources to handle the situation better. And not to be overlooked, Black September believed they had valid reasons for preforming the terrorism that they did. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict was politically based and complicated, but in no way was the Munich Massacre a random terrorist attack. Also worth noting is that the Israeli government launched a program to hunt down and kill the involved men, but were responsible for killing 5 civilians in the process. Following the Munich Massacre, Germany had the three surviving terrorists in captivity but released them when Black September hijacked a German commercial plane (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). Many lives are lost during intense political disputes around the world, and this was no exception.
The Munich Massacre was also the first of a new era of terrorist attacks. This was the first time a terrorist attack took place on International soil. All large international events now have to allot a section of the security team for anti-terrorism unit, and a intelligence must be gathered well in advance. Future Olympic games are potential targets for terrorist attacks, including the Host City for the 2012 Olympics, London.
London has hosted the summer Olympics 3 times (2012 Summer Olympics, 2012). The city is considered to be cultural capital of the world and is the worlds most visited city. Unlike Munich, London does not have to prove its attractiveness to international visitors. It already has a well-established infrastructure and other tourism draws. London has a mild climate, and temperatures in the summer rarely exceed 90 degrees. London beat out Paris, Madrid, New York and Moscow for the bid. However, London has also had a history of terrorist attacks. Less than 24 hours after announcing that London would be the host city, four bombs went off during morning rush hour. 52 people died, and more than 700 were injured in the attack (2012 Summer Olympics, 2012). Shockingly similar to the Munich Massacre, a simulation drill was being designed that almost exactly mirrored the real life attack (2012 Summer Olympics, 2012).
Security was again questioned during the 2011 England Riots, which erupted in response to police violence. A newspaper called The Hindu accused the London Police of having “pre-Olympic nerves” in early July of 2012 (Suroor, 2012). In just two days, 13 people were arrested on suspicion of terrorism. The UK has sided with the United States for the War on Terror and is located fairly close to the Middle East. A statement from the Home Secretary, Theresa May, was released to ensure security at the Olympics. The security will be “the largest and most complex security operation in [the UK] since the Second World War” with 17,000 military personnel assisting (May, 2012). It is likely that the UK has learned that military cooperation is necessary after the complications and shortfalls in security in Munich. Security has become an 864 million dollar investment for London (May, 2012).
Germany, in its quest to present a new and improved face to the world, invited over “4000 newspaper, magazine and radio journalist and 2000 journalist, announcers and crews” to cover the 1972 Berlin Olympics (Reeve, 2000). The media world had never seen this sort of coverage before. The whole world could be connected. Germany was especially proud of their satellite technology that distributed the mass-media (Reeve, 2000). This was the most media the Olympics had seen. Since then, media coverage has continued to expand exponentially with the introduction of new technology. Advertisements by NBC boast the ability to stream live video on a personal computer, tablet, or phone, making the 2012 Olympics even easier to be a part of. Over 800,000 people follow “London 2012” using social media, and videos have more than 4 million views (IOC, 2012). This Olympics is truly going to be the start of a new era of media. The rise of social media and the ease of access mean people from all over the world will be a part of the games actively. It is no longer a sporting event that is just for the host country to enjoy, it is an international event. The new media will allow the Olympics to become even more of a global celebration.
The other side of the development of new media is the continued separation between athletes and spectators. As athletes are idolized and portrayed as heroes, they become almost fictionalized. One of the fundamental principles of Olympism as laid out in the Olympic Charter is “create a way of life based on the joy of effort [and] the educational value of good example” (Olympic Charter, 2011). Historically, Olympians are admired by youth and adults alike and are used to inspire health living. But today, in a society that is digressing rapidly towards poor health, this is no longer the case. Athletes are no longer being used to promote strength and athleticism; they are being used to promote McDonalds and Nike.
The most shocking example of the fictionalization is found in the Apple App store. A game was created by London 2012 to help promote the Olympics. It begins with the creation of an avatar, and from there the user can “train” and “compete” at the (virtual) Olympics against other users without leaving their chair. Instead of children venturing outdoors to create mock Olympic events with neighborhood friends, they will be playing virtually and expending no energy to do so.
There is also a trend in the media to create drama and exaggerate situations to give viewers the “inside look” at athletes lives. What are lost in the stories of victory are the years of hard work and intense dedication it took for the athletes to get their bodies in the best shape. With out recognition that these athletes have had to train very hard to get to the Olympics the athletes become “superstars” and are glorified to the point where children can no longer relate to them athletically. The Olympics are intended to inspire sport and health, but athletes are fictionalized by the media to create a better story. The reporting for the Olympics, at least in the United States, has become more of a reality show than a sports broadcast with drama added to maintain viewer interest.
The other debate over the rise of social media is the regulation. The IOC has issued guidelines for participants in the 2012 London Olympics on what is and not allowed. Athletes are encouraged to use social media, but required to do so with in certain confines. They cannot report on competition or comment on activities of another participant or use vulgar or obscene words, and are asked to “at all times conform to the Olympic Spirit and fundamental principles of Olympism. The IOC reserves all rights to remove offending social media and impose sanctions if necessary (IOC, 2012). Beginning with the 1972 Munich Olympics, media has been used to promote the positive qualities of the event. But manipulating the media in that way, host cities ensure that they are presenting their best face to the world. The point at which this becomes propaganda and the line between free speech and full censorship will likely continue to be blurred with upcoming Olympic games.
In the weeks leading up to the 2012 London Olympics, the press has been covering the financial controversies surrounding the games. The budget was originally set at about USD$3.7 billion when London won the bid in 2005, but has increased to about USD$14.4 billion (Olympic Budget, 2007 ). Quoted as part of the increased budget was security costs. While London is generally proud to host the Olympics, there have been complaints about the budget increase because a lot of the money is coming from taxpayer dollars. The Olympics are considered to be economic boosters for the host city, but with increasing costs and budgets, that may not be the case in the future. This contrasts with the 1972 Munich Olympics. People were more supportive and excited about the opportunity to host, and were willing to spend all the money necessary to present the best Berlin possible. The total cost for the 1972 games came out to USD$1,221 million, and about a fourth was funded by public money (Die Spiele, 1972).
The numbers for the 2012 London Olympics have not yet been reported, but a newspaper poll found that 59% believe that too much taxpayer money has gone to the Olympics (UK, 2012). There are also a large number of residents planning on vacating their London homes to avoid the crowds and chaos. Previous Olympics have taken place in cities that needed major infrastructure and economic development, and there have been concerns about the host cities ability to turn around and execute a successful Olympic event. London on the other hand, did not necessarily need all of the infrastructure improvements, and already has an established tourism industry. This is likely a source of frustration for UK citizens; they do not feel like they need the Olympics to revitalize and market their city like other host cities have needed in the past. The economic benefits of being the host city are likely to be less for London than they have for other cities.
It is clear that in all of the financial commotion, the some of the original reasons for hosting the Olympics have become lost. Olympism does not have a price tag, and cannot be budgeted; it is “a philosophy of life”. Unfortunately in the stress of planning a large-scale international sporting event, Olympism values are sometimes overshadowed by monetary costs. London is poised to be the host of the greatest Olympic games in modern times. Hosting the Olympic games is a great honor, and should bring a great sense of pride to the nation, like the people of Germany hoped would happen in the Munich Olympics. Germany never got to celebrate the hard work and successes of hosting the 1972 Munich Summer Olympics, but those games continue to guide and influence the subsequent Olympic events.
References
Baur, F. (Producer), Glattes, W. (Assistant Director), & Liebske, W. (Assistant Director).
(1976). 21 hours at munich (Motion picture). Germany: Arri studios.
Beaumont, C. (2012). LOCOG fact pack. London 2012. Retrieved from
http://www.london2012.com/mm/Document/Publications/StategiesPolicy/01/24/75/49/FactpackMay2012_Neutral.pdf?t=1336753281382
Die Spiele. (1972). The official report of the organizing committee for the games of the
XXth Olympiad Munich 1972. Retrieved from http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1972/1972s1pt1.pdf
IOC. (2012). IOC social media, blogging and internet guidelines for participants and
other accredited persons at the London 2012 Olympic games. Olympic.org. Retrieved from http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Games_London_2012/IOC
_Social_Media_Blogging_and_Internet_Guidelines-London.pdf
Suroor, H. (2012, July 6). Police accused of “pre-Olympic nerves”. The Hindu. Retrieved
from http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3610460.ece
May, T. (2012, July 12). Home secretary statement on Olympic security. Home Office.
Retrieved from http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/media-centre/news/theresa-may-olympic-security
Munich Massacre. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_massacre
Olympic Charter. (2011). International Olympic Committee. Retrieved
from http://www.olympic.org/Documents/olympic_charter_en.pdf
Olympics budget rises to £9.3bn. (2007). BBC News. Retrieved from
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/6453575.stm
Reeve, S. (2000). One day in September: The full story of the 1972 Munich Olympic
massacre and the Israeli operation ‘Wrath of God’. New York: Arcade Publishing.
UK residents. (2012). China Central Television. Retrieved from
http://newscontent.cctv.com/news.jsp?fileId=148205
Young, C. (2010). The 1972 Munich Olympics and the making of modern Germany.
Research Features at University of Cambridge. Retrieved from http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/the-1972-munich-olympics-and-the-making-of-modern-germany/
2012 Summer Olympics. (2012). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics
1972 Summer Olympics. (2012). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Summer_Olympics
Leslie Greer
MGT 390 Theory and Organization of the Olympic Games
7/24/12
The 2012 London Olympics are quickly approaching. Organizers of the games have spent almost 10 years working on getting the games to London, and getting London prepared for the games. This is the 30th Summer Olympics put on in modern times, which means London games organizers have 30 other games to learn from the failures and successes. One of the games London organizers can learn a great deal from is the 1972 Munich Olympics. There are several similarities and a few differences that make these games comparable. Both had special global security considerations that distracted from the games and both games are going to be the groundbreaking with new media technology, but the public support and financial budgeting contrasts quite starkly between the Munich games and London games. Every host city presents its own unique advantages and complications, but there are still several themes that are consistent for each summer Olympic games.
Munich, Germany was selected to be the host city for the 1972 summer Olympics over Detroit, Madrid and Montreal (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). This was the second time Germany hosted the summer Olympics. The 1936 Berlin Olympics took place when the Nazi’s were still in power, and further damaged Germany’s reputation. The 1972 Munich Olympics was designed to “heal old wounds” and present a new and improved Germany to the rest of the world (Baur, 1976). This plan failed when a group of Palestinian terrorist took eleven Israeli athletes and coaches hostage. All eleven hostages were killed, along with a police officer and five terrorists (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). The Olympic games were suspended for 24 hours, but resumed after a memorial service was held.
The 1972 Munich Olympics will forever affect security at Olympic games. Intelligence and special force teams are now standard, and well-armed security personnel are the norm. The Munich Olympics were not just an international sports competition; it also set the stage for international relations on security matters. The 2012 London Olympics could very well be a target for terrorist organizations. Although Olympism is about peace and collaboration through sports, it also creates a vulnerable situation for nations and special security considerations must be made.
On paper, Munich was an excellent choice for a host city. It has a fairly mild climate in the summer time, and the people were willing to pour money into improving infrastructure. The structures built for the competition were considered to be revolutionary in design (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). There was a lot of optimism and excitement going in to the games in 1972. Germany has had a rich history of political disputes so the 1972 Olympic motto was “happy games” to present a diplomatic and friendly city to the world (Young ,2012). The security was purposefully lax to emulate a comfortable and relaxed atmosphere (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). Guards wore light blue uniforms and only carried walki-talkies for protection (Reeve, 2000). After an investigation of the terrorist attack, it was revealed that the security team was supposed to practice a simulation that was very similar to the actual terrorist attack, but declined to do so (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). In the attempt to create a safe and relaxed atmosphere, the Munich police were dangerously unprepared for an attack to occur.
Also unfortunate was the fact that Germany’s spoiled political history probably discouraged other countries from assisting with the rescue efforts. Israel was contacted immediately and was notified of the demands of the terrorists, but the Head of State made it clear that Israel would not negotiate with terrorists, and had no intention of complying with the demands and releasing the Palestinian prisoners. Egypt was also consulted because the terrorists demanded the plane take them to Cairo, but the Prime Minister also refused to be involved. Furthermore, because of the post war constitution, the German army could not be involved in the rescue because they are forbidden to operate in Germany during times of peace. The Munich police were unprepared to execute the ambush plan, and the appointed snipers even admitted they were undertrained (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012).
Germany faced a lot of criticism following the event, because there were so many mistakes made along the way. If Germany had a more trusting political friendship with other countries, they may have had better resources to handle the situation better. And not to be overlooked, Black September believed they had valid reasons for preforming the terrorism that they did. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict was politically based and complicated, but in no way was the Munich Massacre a random terrorist attack. Also worth noting is that the Israeli government launched a program to hunt down and kill the involved men, but were responsible for killing 5 civilians in the process. Following the Munich Massacre, Germany had the three surviving terrorists in captivity but released them when Black September hijacked a German commercial plane (1972 Summer Olympics, 2012). Many lives are lost during intense political disputes around the world, and this was no exception.
The Munich Massacre was also the first of a new era of terrorist attacks. This was the first time a terrorist attack took place on International soil. All large international events now have to allot a section of the security team for anti-terrorism unit, and a intelligence must be gathered well in advance. Future Olympic games are potential targets for terrorist attacks, including the Host City for the 2012 Olympics, London.
London has hosted the summer Olympics 3 times (2012 Summer Olympics, 2012). The city is considered to be cultural capital of the world and is the worlds most visited city. Unlike Munich, London does not have to prove its attractiveness to international visitors. It already has a well-established infrastructure and other tourism draws. London has a mild climate, and temperatures in the summer rarely exceed 90 degrees. London beat out Paris, Madrid, New York and Moscow for the bid. However, London has also had a history of terrorist attacks. Less than 24 hours after announcing that London would be the host city, four bombs went off during morning rush hour. 52 people died, and more than 700 were injured in the attack (2012 Summer Olympics, 2012). Shockingly similar to the Munich Massacre, a simulation drill was being designed that almost exactly mirrored the real life attack (2012 Summer Olympics, 2012).
Security was again questioned during the 2011 England Riots, which erupted in response to police violence. A newspaper called The Hindu accused the London Police of having “pre-Olympic nerves” in early July of 2012 (Suroor, 2012). In just two days, 13 people were arrested on suspicion of terrorism. The UK has sided with the United States for the War on Terror and is located fairly close to the Middle East. A statement from the Home Secretary, Theresa May, was released to ensure security at the Olympics. The security will be “the largest and most complex security operation in [the UK] since the Second World War” with 17,000 military personnel assisting (May, 2012). It is likely that the UK has learned that military cooperation is necessary after the complications and shortfalls in security in Munich. Security has become an 864 million dollar investment for London (May, 2012).
Germany, in its quest to present a new and improved face to the world, invited over “4000 newspaper, magazine and radio journalist and 2000 journalist, announcers and crews” to cover the 1972 Berlin Olympics (Reeve, 2000). The media world had never seen this sort of coverage before. The whole world could be connected. Germany was especially proud of their satellite technology that distributed the mass-media (Reeve, 2000). This was the most media the Olympics had seen. Since then, media coverage has continued to expand exponentially with the introduction of new technology. Advertisements by NBC boast the ability to stream live video on a personal computer, tablet, or phone, making the 2012 Olympics even easier to be a part of. Over 800,000 people follow “London 2012” using social media, and videos have more than 4 million views (IOC, 2012). This Olympics is truly going to be the start of a new era of media. The rise of social media and the ease of access mean people from all over the world will be a part of the games actively. It is no longer a sporting event that is just for the host country to enjoy, it is an international event. The new media will allow the Olympics to become even more of a global celebration.
The other side of the development of new media is the continued separation between athletes and spectators. As athletes are idolized and portrayed as heroes, they become almost fictionalized. One of the fundamental principles of Olympism as laid out in the Olympic Charter is “create a way of life based on the joy of effort [and] the educational value of good example” (Olympic Charter, 2011). Historically, Olympians are admired by youth and adults alike and are used to inspire health living. But today, in a society that is digressing rapidly towards poor health, this is no longer the case. Athletes are no longer being used to promote strength and athleticism; they are being used to promote McDonalds and Nike.
The most shocking example of the fictionalization is found in the Apple App store. A game was created by London 2012 to help promote the Olympics. It begins with the creation of an avatar, and from there the user can “train” and “compete” at the (virtual) Olympics against other users without leaving their chair. Instead of children venturing outdoors to create mock Olympic events with neighborhood friends, they will be playing virtually and expending no energy to do so.
There is also a trend in the media to create drama and exaggerate situations to give viewers the “inside look” at athletes lives. What are lost in the stories of victory are the years of hard work and intense dedication it took for the athletes to get their bodies in the best shape. With out recognition that these athletes have had to train very hard to get to the Olympics the athletes become “superstars” and are glorified to the point where children can no longer relate to them athletically. The Olympics are intended to inspire sport and health, but athletes are fictionalized by the media to create a better story. The reporting for the Olympics, at least in the United States, has become more of a reality show than a sports broadcast with drama added to maintain viewer interest.
The other debate over the rise of social media is the regulation. The IOC has issued guidelines for participants in the 2012 London Olympics on what is and not allowed. Athletes are encouraged to use social media, but required to do so with in certain confines. They cannot report on competition or comment on activities of another participant or use vulgar or obscene words, and are asked to “at all times conform to the Olympic Spirit and fundamental principles of Olympism. The IOC reserves all rights to remove offending social media and impose sanctions if necessary (IOC, 2012). Beginning with the 1972 Munich Olympics, media has been used to promote the positive qualities of the event. But manipulating the media in that way, host cities ensure that they are presenting their best face to the world. The point at which this becomes propaganda and the line between free speech and full censorship will likely continue to be blurred with upcoming Olympic games.
In the weeks leading up to the 2012 London Olympics, the press has been covering the financial controversies surrounding the games. The budget was originally set at about USD$3.7 billion when London won the bid in 2005, but has increased to about USD$14.4 billion (Olympic Budget, 2007 ). Quoted as part of the increased budget was security costs. While London is generally proud to host the Olympics, there have been complaints about the budget increase because a lot of the money is coming from taxpayer dollars. The Olympics are considered to be economic boosters for the host city, but with increasing costs and budgets, that may not be the case in the future. This contrasts with the 1972 Munich Olympics. People were more supportive and excited about the opportunity to host, and were willing to spend all the money necessary to present the best Berlin possible. The total cost for the 1972 games came out to USD$1,221 million, and about a fourth was funded by public money (Die Spiele, 1972).
The numbers for the 2012 London Olympics have not yet been reported, but a newspaper poll found that 59% believe that too much taxpayer money has gone to the Olympics (UK, 2012). There are also a large number of residents planning on vacating their London homes to avoid the crowds and chaos. Previous Olympics have taken place in cities that needed major infrastructure and economic development, and there have been concerns about the host cities ability to turn around and execute a successful Olympic event. London on the other hand, did not necessarily need all of the infrastructure improvements, and already has an established tourism industry. This is likely a source of frustration for UK citizens; they do not feel like they need the Olympics to revitalize and market their city like other host cities have needed in the past. The economic benefits of being the host city are likely to be less for London than they have for other cities.
It is clear that in all of the financial commotion, the some of the original reasons for hosting the Olympics have become lost. Olympism does not have a price tag, and cannot be budgeted; it is “a philosophy of life”. Unfortunately in the stress of planning a large-scale international sporting event, Olympism values are sometimes overshadowed by monetary costs. London is poised to be the host of the greatest Olympic games in modern times. Hosting the Olympic games is a great honor, and should bring a great sense of pride to the nation, like the people of Germany hoped would happen in the Munich Olympics. Germany never got to celebrate the hard work and successes of hosting the 1972 Munich Summer Olympics, but those games continue to guide and influence the subsequent Olympic events.
References
Baur, F. (Producer), Glattes, W. (Assistant Director), & Liebske, W. (Assistant Director).
(1976). 21 hours at munich (Motion picture). Germany: Arri studios.
Beaumont, C. (2012). LOCOG fact pack. London 2012. Retrieved from
http://www.london2012.com/mm/Document/Publications/StategiesPolicy/01/24/75/49/FactpackMay2012_Neutral.pdf?t=1336753281382
Die Spiele. (1972). The official report of the organizing committee for the games of the
XXth Olympiad Munich 1972. Retrieved from http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1972/1972s1pt1.pdf
IOC. (2012). IOC social media, blogging and internet guidelines for participants and
other accredited persons at the London 2012 Olympic games. Olympic.org. Retrieved from http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Games_London_2012/IOC
_Social_Media_Blogging_and_Internet_Guidelines-London.pdf
Suroor, H. (2012, July 6). Police accused of “pre-Olympic nerves”. The Hindu. Retrieved
from http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3610460.ece
May, T. (2012, July 12). Home secretary statement on Olympic security. Home Office.
Retrieved from http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/media-centre/news/theresa-may-olympic-security
Munich Massacre. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_massacre
Olympic Charter. (2011). International Olympic Committee. Retrieved
from http://www.olympic.org/Documents/olympic_charter_en.pdf
Olympics budget rises to £9.3bn. (2007). BBC News. Retrieved from
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/6453575.stm
Reeve, S. (2000). One day in September: The full story of the 1972 Munich Olympic
massacre and the Israeli operation ‘Wrath of God’. New York: Arcade Publishing.
UK residents. (2012). China Central Television. Retrieved from
http://newscontent.cctv.com/news.jsp?fileId=148205
Young, C. (2010). The 1972 Munich Olympics and the making of modern Germany.
Research Features at University of Cambridge. Retrieved from http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/the-1972-munich-olympics-and-the-making-of-modern-germany/
2012 Summer Olympics. (2012). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics
1972 Summer Olympics. (2012). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Summer_Olympics